Concepts of Kinship and Biology

Concepts of Kinship and Biology Does kinship ultimately refer to biology? In this essay, I will explore the ways in which kinship ultimately refers to biology. I will first define what kinship is and how it is viewed from the western perspective. From there I will provide accounts of biology and genealogies and provide a basic definition. I will approach the argument how modern ideas and technology are changing kinship if defined through biological means. I will illustrate examples of genetics, new types of parents, how the family is a public discourse. I then will look at how kinship is viewed in reference to biology and genealogy. If it is defined as being consanguinity, it is flexible and can be expanded to accept new types of kinship. It is argued that kinship is not ultimately biological as the idea assists people to overcome infertility, to give everyone a chance to have a family and new types ultimately expand the concept of kinship. I will conclude by stating that the family a social system, it will adapt t how society changes as well as a cultural construct that represents the ritual and symbolic identity of bondage also the underlying of economic exchange that characterize reciprocity but to ultimately refer to biology I shall conclude kinship is held within the mind of an individual. From this, the opportunity in modern state to conceive is available to every individual. A key aspect of a family is kinship. Malinowski believed kinship to be consist of emotional attachments of individuals that exist to fulfill a purpose through customs that provide current meaning for members of that society. However, Freud saw that the key to understanding kinship would explain adaptive functions to the unconscious mind and how these adaptations derive from social problems (namely incest taboo) lead to the foundations of individual identities. The society was the family. The As with the principle hunting and fishing. Schneider believes western and American culture defines kinship as a system of relation, where it reflects real or assumed biological connections. From this, he also argues that what differentiates kinship from other systems is genealogy. It separates people from their friends, co-workers and neighbours (Stone 2001).The social notion of a family is based on the idea that our relationships with an obligation towards people we identify as part of the famil y will in some way be different from and often, by implication, closer than other relationships, such as friendships. Anthropologists look at relationships by blood or marriage as grounds for kinship as a social institution. In the Amazon, kinship is dually the origin for social organization (Levi-Strauss, 1982) and social relatedness (Carsten, 2000). This is seen as a ‘socio-cultural explanation. However, when collecting genealogies, biological explanations of kinship are not prescribed. Genealogies are a method in which to trace an individuals kin and family relationships for reference and address. Kinship relations are based on genealogies consistent with their folk culture theory and their idea of human production (1973 Cited in Stone 2001). The limitations of kindred and descent-based groups are shifting constantly. According to rules of kinship relationships distinct to biological roots, practices are flexible and integrate systems. These have no relation to any biological relationships. There are two opposing arguments of kinship values and defines it. Kinship and family cannot be defined in one aspect, it is multifaceted; it can be both founded on nature or culture (Akesson 2001) especially evident in consanguinity, friendship, affinity and name-sharing. The compadrazgo in Mexico form a trinity of kinship based on close ties between parents, godparents and child. Encountering a symbol of spiritual belonging providing a cultural idiom of behaviour which constitutes groups in society, indentifying a range of social relationships. As a form of address and reference metacommiunication by Gregory Bateson. A ritual of language between its fellow kinsmen. An immediate feature of kinship in New Guinea informs us that kin and family relationships can form and expand if people acknowledge nonkin relationships as a formula to genealogy. If regards are towards defining social relationships by means of kin or not, then a close relation towards someone can be stipulated. Consequently, the unusual sight of brother sister and cousins informally are as sibling in the sense of fellow kinsmen, even if the Trobrianders have no consanguineal or affinal relationship. ‘It is not the physical bond of common blood; it is the social acknowledgment and interpretation of it (Malinowski 1913) Like in Hawaii society, the general use of kin terminology compared to the western tradition, children call all members of their parental guardians father and mother because parenthood is unfeasible to ascertain. Personal names in referring to or addressing individuals shows this method of communication as being of genealogical relationships. A ritual in which continues a kinship relationship between the community in everyday interaction. Unblood related attachments of persons bond together as cousins in Hawaiian society can establish a relationship by naming each other kin meaning cousin. However, in accepting the naming and bondage implications this means the behavior and expectations of cousin is also implied. The treatment of such should be of equal status and respect regardless of any age. Such use of kin terms illustrates Schneiders argument that the recording and listing of kinship terms does not mean that their designation will follow accordingly (1968). As such, a modeled family in Chinese historical sources was seen as hierarchical clan members and lineage of social strata. Government based kinship ethics and kinship forms of power, it is appropriate that Confucius always looked back to the ancient past of the Three Dynasties. (Lewis 1990: 28-36). Members of each clan were said to be descendents of a mutual mythological ancestor. And shared a common emblem (totem), which signified their common character. Arguable, relating kinship to hierarchal status, orders the strengthening of state which results in kinship partnership in a political social life. Using the idiom of kinship implies that all exchanges even political are based on trust, are uncompetitive, and lack selfishness sand that relationship have long-term stability. Theses are fictive affinal and even blood kin these ideological assumptions do not always hold up. Exchanges create alliances. Families are being regulated by state governance, thus the family social life and government are institutional based on kinship forms of power. Rights and obligations to Jamaican mother and father through blood relations in providing financial support and caretaking services (Sobo 1993:79) As we can see kinships represent symbolic ideals of meaning which explain an integral and wider set of transitional symbols to convey implicit meanings for which are used regularly and ‘consciously to construct the idea of community. No matter what they project to the world they choose what will define them. No matter what their biology is, people can socially define themselves; the self is socially constructed (Shanley 2001 and Strathern 1992)). The understanding of kinship and family is a complex set of networks and patterns of relationships intertwined with intricate meanings. Kinship provides a framework where its cultural context can mobilize human behaviors. Freuds Totem and Taboo highlights the importance of religion and ritual in kinship and social organizations. However, to understand kinship one must understand the importance and relevance of and for term referred to as kinship other than accepting the restrictions of genealogy and its implications. Realizing its flexibility it constitutes boundaries is not without obligation. Paternity is established by (one of) the mothers sexual partners by giving numerous gifts to the midwife (Galvin 2001) As a social system, kinship embodies intervention, and new boundaries emerge. There is a new type of kinship because in present day, we live in a highly individuals society (Franklin 1999). An individual is defined by what they absorb from their environment. They choose what they project to the world and they choose what will define them. Practical reasons may trigger these activities whereby a male may not have any male siblings (brothers) and not able to interact or relate to his sister and look to depend on a close nit relationship with males outside of his kin group for belonging or social activities such as fishing and hunting. In exploration, parentages suffer consequences from internal fragmented kin relations extra need and related sentiments beyond ones boundaries can elevate into new cultures and subcultures. They provide men with models which are imperative to mans relationship to society and nature. The social construction enables friends to help and assist one another an d because of the development of integration with different relationships are classified as kinship and provide a sense of unity and identity. So, if human activity changes, the cultural context e.g kinship, should change as well. Thus it is the institutional aspect of peoples interactions that create a family (Strathern 1999). Weimatel observed Zumbagua in Ecuador, kinship is based on social conditions. That sharing food and time is what forms a family. Through nurturing, children and adults create binding kin relationships (1995). Individuals remain kin under the sharing of game and fish and also in physical absense if they choose this path. The ideals of the body idioms are also embodied in Amazonian societies. For example, ‘raw and the cooked (Levi-Strauss) shows an understanding of identity in a universal symbolic natural habitats of commensality. Through social exchange, social values and commodity exchange a semiotic use of the body creates personal identities and kinship ties. However, I f people so wish not to share or participate in obligations with to maintain an extended kinship these boundaries are optional. Therefore, there are no constraints on consanguineal kin as a system. Communities are not solely the product of biologically inherited drives releases from cultural constraints. Rather it is a product of peculiarity cultural meaning and social affairs bound in a manner that permits freedom of choice. The significance is individuality, kinship as and symbol and society an expression. It shapes and modes these peoples lifes and the ways in which they relate to each other, its a crucial concept in defining their social being. Furthermore, Schneider remarks that in American kinship, sexual intercourse is the natural act of procreation (Cited in Strathern). Sex is a way in which unifies male and female to share their biological substance. But, with aligning to modern procedures, new technologies of procreation allow lesbian and gay couples to have a family using assisted conception. This challenges the notion of kinship in a way that it does not involve a heterosexual couple and that the child is not biologically related to both parents. Stable family boundaries are now placed under threat (Stanley 2001). Artificial processes seem to replace natural ones (Strathern 1992). ‘Bonds between family members that people had once thought of as unchangeable to given were now viewed as established by human intention and will )Shanley 2001:88). Moreover, Kath Weston explores the topic of gay and lesbian couples having families through new reproductive systems, and she points that from this, it challenges Schneid ers account that in American kinship, families are based on procreation. For example An adopted son. The use of such language suggests that the relationship between parents and son is regarded as real as if the child were the parents biological offspring. Kinship is rhetoric of social relatedness, as Guemple argues (1972b), but whether based on biology or affinity, it is real as long as people see it as such. REFERENCES Freud, Sigmund. 1958 [1913]. Totem and taboo: Some points of Agreement between the Mental Lines of Savages and Neurotics. In SE. Vol. 13, PP. IX-162. Malinowski, Bronislaw. 1922. Argonauts of the Western Pacific. London. Lewis, I. M. 1971. Ecstatic Religion; An Anthropological Study of Spirit Possession and Shamanism. Harmondsworth. Levi-Strauss, Claude. 1969 [1964]. The Raw and the Cooked: Introduction to a Science of Mythology. Vol. 1. London. Schneider, Daniel. 1980. [1968]. American Kinship. Account. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Ltd. Shanley, Mary Lyndon (2001) Making Babies, Making Families: What Matters Most in an Age of Reproductive Technologies, Surrogacy, Adoption, and Same-Sex and Unwed Parents. Boston: Beacon Press. Stone, Linda. 2001. ‘Chapter One: Introduction In New Directions in Anthropological Kinship Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield Publisher. Ltd pp. 1-20. Strathern, Marilyn (1992) After Nature: English Kinship in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press.

Machiavelli, A Founding Father?

Machiavelli advocated centralization and concentration of power in The Prince while the authors of the Federalist Papers call for the separation of powers and a system of checks and balances.   The Prince, however, was a job application to Lorenzo di Medici the son of Piero di Medici.   Lorenzo had just inherited the principality of   Florence by settlement of a war with the Pope and his mercenaries ( Lerner xxvii) in 1512. Machiavelli, was however, not as alien to the ideas of the Convention espoused by the various   Federalist Papers.  Ã‚   For much of his life he was staunchly republican in his outlook; the loss of the Florentine Republic and his position as an advisor to the powerful were powerful motivators to write a pro-monarchy text to regain his former position in the new state.( Lerner xxviii) During this imposed exile from the halls of power Machiavelli’s works included the Discourses, an analysis of the Roman Republic, its power structure, and its defects.   In The Discourses Machiavelli is plainly pro-republic, though he also manages to treat the issue of a monarchy as well.   Machiavelli’s ideas are included to some degree in the Federalist Papers and the Constitution of the United States. Machiavelli, Hamilton, Jay, and Madison would all find agreement in some of the most important aspects of the governing of a Republic; including the use of a standing army and the separation of powers. Standing Army The issue of a standing army was a touchy one for the convention.   The military was part of the executive power and a standing army could be abused.   Indeed he warns of this in Federalist #8 : But in a country, where the perpetual menacings of danger oblige the government to always be prepared to repel it, her armies are must be numerous enough for instant defence.†Ã‚  Ã‚   The importance of the of the soldier is enhanced and the military state is elevated above the civil. In territories that are often the theatre of war , are unavoidably subjected to frequent violation of their rights; and by degrees the people come to consider the soldier their superiors. ( #8, p35)However , the Convention left the raising of regular troops solely under the authority of   Congress, and not the President. Thus   they are under the control of the people; the Congress shall decide when a standing military is necessary; before a President has them to Command.   Hamilton says that the power to maintain a standing army in time of peace is a necessary caution given the fact that the Dominions of Britain and Spain border the fledgling nation.(#24, p120). Machiavelli would agree: â€Å"Such princes and republics of modern times as have no national troops for defense or attack ought well to be ashamed of it†¦.† (prince 175) and I conclude, therefore, that no principality is secure without having its own forces† (Prince pg 52-53) Separation of Powers The separation of powers has been regarded as the hallmark of republican principles.   The separation of power among three distinct branches of government prevents any one person from acting as â€Å"legislator, judge, and executioner.†Ã‚   In this way the abuse of power leading to Tyranny is avoided. Machiavelli states much the same in The Discourses: ALL those who have written upon civil institutions demon- strate (and history is full of examples to support them) that whoever desires to found a state and give it laws, must start with assuming that all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature, whenever they may find occasion for it. ( 117) An early form of the system checks and balances was the formation of the Tribunes in the Roman Republic.   The Tribunes served to act as a sort of Legislative judge curbing and investigating alleged excesses by the Senators of Rome.( Machiavelli, â€Å"Discourses†, 118)   The Convention went further; it gave executive authority to the President, but withheld the purse, and it gave the Sword to Congress but required the Executive to wield it, and gave the Law to Congress but allowed both the Justice and Executive to disapprove it, gave Congress the means to remove an executive or a justice from office, but made the members of Congress answerable to the whole of the People. Madison says that â€Å"The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judicial in the same hands, whether of one, of few, or many, and whether hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the very definition of Tyranny.†(Carey lxx)  Ã‚   So both men believed that the separation of powers in a Republic is a fundamental principle defending the liberty of the citizen.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both men also believed that the authority of the supreme executive should to some respect be stronger than that of the regional powers. While the Federal system resembles more closely the â€Å"Prince and Baron† model warned against by Machiavelli; through well-thought out assignment of the powers to the Federal Government the position of the regional powers (Governors of the States) approach the â€Å"Prince and Servants† model advocated by him.   The Convention took the middle ground with the powers of the Executive (federal) being supreme only in its assigned sphere and that of the regional to be supreme within its own sphere.   Conflicts between States and the Federal authority were to be resolved by the Supreme Court.   Therefore no one State was in a position to help outside enemies to oppose the Federal government, but simultaneously the Federal authority could not rule by fiat as a Prince might have done. Conclusion: So which model was more capable of maintaining order and curtailing disorder from below?   History seems to indicate that the careful checks and balances and the general separation of powers have been more enduring than a centralized Monarchy.   France proved the wisdom of the system of checks and balances when the National Assembly seized all power for the purpose of reforming the government.   This attempt, while its aims were noble, failed catastrophically and subjected the People of France to a series of tyrants, emperors, and various violations of their civil liberties for nearly a century. Absolute Monarchy as Machiavelli said, is stable only so long as the ruler is ruthless when necessary and is either loved or feared by its people.   The problem seems to be that this merely builds up pressure in the people; who will begin to rebel the moment any hesitation by the monarch is shown either internally or through circumstance such as war.   This process happened on a world-wide scale and was experienced by Britain, France, Egypt, Iran, and may be happening now in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates of the Middle East. Machiavelli states that all laws of liberty come from the open opposition in the legislature between two classes; the Nobles and the People.(Machiavelli,   â€Å"Discourses†, p119)   The constitution eliminated the Nobility but a similar problem of factions: Those who have power, those who want power, those who want to oppress.   In a similar fashion to the Tribunes of Rome the various divisions of power executive, legislative, judicial, the National, and the Regional allow open discussion and opposition without providing any overt favor to one faction over another;( Madison, â€Å"Federalist #10†, pp 42-48) ensuring that laws of liberty continue to come from the discourses of those vying for power. ( Madison, â€Å"Federalist #10†, pp42-48) The Republican ideas that Machiavelli held and published in his works might well mark him as one of the founders of   the modern republic along with Locke, Montesque, and the other Enlightenment philosophers. Works Cited Carey, George W. and James McClellan. Reader’s Guide. The Federalist. By   Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison. Indianapolis:   Liberty Fund 2001 Hamilton, Alexander, John Jay, and James Madison. The Federalist. Ed. George W. Carey and James McClellan. The Gideon Edition. Indianapolis:   Liberty Fund 2001 Learner, Max. Introduction.   The Prince and the Discourses. By Niccolo Machiavelli. New York: Random House 1950 Machiavelli, Niccolo. â€Å"The Prince†. Ed. E.R.P Vincent. Trans. Luigi Ricci. The Prince and the Discourses. New York: Random House 1950 Machiavelli, Niccolo. â€Å"The Discourses†.   Trans. Christian E. Detmold. The Prince and the Discourses. New York: Random House 1950         

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease ( Copd ) - 1166 Words

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is moving to the forefront of public health problems. It is projected to rank third in mortality rates by 2020.6 COPD is a lung disease that is treatable and preventative.6 The patient has toxic particles or gases that cause an enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the airways and lungs as well as progressive airflow limitation.5 Other causes for COPD include emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chronic asthma, and some forms of bronchiectasis.6 Occupation and exposure to external vapors, chemicals, irritants, and fumes cause ten to twenty percent of COPD cases in the United States.3 The onset tends to be ages 55-60 years old with COPD occurring in men more than women.5 The disease is a long term†¦show more content†¦Patients present with shortness of breath, cough, sputum production, airflow limitation, wheezing, chest tightness, dyspnea during exertion, fatigue, dizziness, elevated shoulders, overuse of accessory breathing

research proposal - 1944 Words

research proposals 1. Background Since the globalization developing quickly, customers become prefer manufactures and suppliers who provide faster logistics and better services, which cause big issue for suppliers to increase their ability to meet the customers’ expectations. However, they need to enhance their core competence at the same time, in order to focus on one aspect, they turn to outsourcing. According to Blanchard (2010), those well-known brand makers, product-centric companies, and companies that used do rely on their own supply chains are now tending to rely on 3PLs (Third Party Logistics) to do the transportation and similar logistics tasks. 3PLs, at the beginning only focused on one function, are finding their way to†¦show more content†¦224-228. Yee, H.,L. Daud, D., â€Å"Measuring Customer Satisfaction in the Parcel Service Delivery: A Pilot Study in Malaysia†, Business and Economic Research, 2011, Vol. 1, No. 1: E6 Blanchard, D., (2010), Supply Chain Management: Best Practices 2nd edition, John Wiley Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, Canada. Bonomyong, R. Supatn, N., (2011) â€Å"Selectiong logistics providers in Thailand: a shippers’ perspective.†, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 45 No. 3,p.419-437. 3.2. Literature Review The two sources as follows introduce several kinds of 3PL services from either companies or customers’ aspect. After first came out, 3PL is undergoing a rapid transition, especially in the information age, the advances in IT lead to more companies turn to outsourcing to increase their logistics speed and customer satisfaction. Regan and Song (2000) made a discussion on the 3PL industry transition in the information age from the point of view of shippers, carriers and 3PLs. They provided a characterization of the industry, gave the origin and current issue of 3PLs, listed 3PL services function based on information technology, then introduced the online freight marketplaces and so-called â€Å"e-tailer†, and finally discussed past practices and future research opportunities. Regan and Song (2000) made the conclusion that from the point of view of shippers, carriers, the 3PL industry has entered a period of rapid expansion and transformation, based on theShow MoreRelatedResearch Proposal661 Words   |  3 PagesTO: Professor Sara Cutting FROM: Kiersten McCaffrey DATE: February 18, 2014 SUBJECT: Begin Business Plan for Potential Future Investment Background In the beginning of the semester you requested that I research a topic related to a personal decision such as a future goal. I am currently employed at a yoga studio and have a general understanding of the hard work that goes into running a small business. 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